Global TreatiesGlobal Treaties

International environmental agreements are highly prioritized in UPPSC and RO/ARO exams, focusing on emission targets, ozone protection, and biodiversity conservation.

• Paris Agreement & India's NDCs: Under Article 4 of the Paris Agreement, India committed to reducing the emissions intensity of its GDP by 45% by 2030 from the 2005 level, and achieving 50% cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel-based energy resources by 2030.
• Kigali Amendment to Montreal Protocol: An amendment to phase down Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), which are potent greenhouse gases. India is placed in Group 2 with a baseline of 2024-2026 and must freeze HFC consumption by 2028, reaching an 85% reduction by 2047.
• Ramsar Convention & UP's Status: Signed in 1971 in Iran, it is an intergovernmental treaty for wetland conservation. India has 85 Ramsar sites (as of 2024). Uttar Pradesh has 10 designated sites, including Upper Ganga River, Sandi Bird Sanctuary, and Samaspur Bird Sanctuary.
• Minamata Convention on Mercury: A global treaty to protect human health and the environment from anthropogenic emissions of mercury. India ratified it in 2018, allowing flexibility in the use of mercury in certain critical sectors like healthcare and chlor-alkali plants.

Treaties governing global commons like oceans, outer space, and polar regions are essential for maintaining international order and security.

• UNCLOS & Maritime Zones: The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea defines three zones: Territorial Sea (up to 12 nautical miles from baseline), Contiguous Zone (up to 24 nautical miles), and Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ, up to 200 nautical miles) where coastal states have sovereign rights over resources.
• Artemis Accords: A US-led multilateral agreement based on the Outer Space Treaty of 1967, designed to guide civil space exploration and use in the 21st century. India became the 27th signatory in June 2023 during Prime Minister Modi's state visit to the US.
• Antarctic Treaty System & India's Act: Signed in 1959, it demilitarizes Antarctica and establishes it as a zone for scientific research. To give domestic effect to this treaty, the Indian Parliament passed the Indian Antarctic Act, 2022, regulating visits and activities in the region.

Security treaties and export control regimes are highly tested areas regarding India's membership status and strategic autonomy.

• Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT): Opened for signature in 1968, it restricts the possession of nuclear weapons to five states (US, Russia, UK, France, China). India refused to sign it, citing its discriminatory nature that divides the world into nuclear 'haves' and 'have-nots'.
• Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT): Adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1996, it bans all nuclear explosions. It has not entered into force because key nations, including India, Pakistan, and the US, have either not signed or not ratified it.
• Chemical & Biological Weapons Conventions: The Biological Weapons Convention (BWC, 1975) and Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC, 1997) completely ban these classes of weapons. India is a signatory and state party to both, having successfully destroyed its declared chemical weapons stockpile under OPCW supervision.

Bilateral and multilateral economic treaties directly impact India's trade balance, taxation laws, and foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows.

• India-EFTA TEPA: Signed in March 2024 with the European Free Trade Association (Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland). It commits $100 billion in investment into India over 15 years, generating 1 million direct jobs.
• Double Taxation Avoidance Agreements (DTAA): Bilateral treaties signed under Section 90 of the Income Tax Act, 1961, to prevent taxpayers from being taxed twice on the same income. India has DTAAs with over 85 countries, with Mauritius and Singapore being key sources of FDI.
• WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA): Entered into force in February 2017, it aims to simplify, harmonize, and modernize international trade procedures. India ratified it in 2016 and established the National Committee on Trade Facilitation (NCTF) headed by the Cabinet Secretary.