Development Of Press and EducationDevelopment Of Press and Education

The press in India began as an instrument of European commercial interests but soon transformed into a powerful tool for sociopolitical critique and anti-colonial resistance.

• James Augustus Hickey (1780): Started 'The Bengal Gazette', which was seized by the government in 1782 due to its outspoken criticism of the East India Company's high officials.
• Censorship of Press Act, 1799: Enacted by Lord Wellesley anticipating French invasion; mandated pre-censorship on all newspapers and compulsory printing of editor and printer names.
• Licensing Regulations, 1823: Introduced by John Adam; mandated a government license for operating a press. Raja Ram Mohan Roy's 'Mirat-ul-Akbar' had to cease publication as a result.
• Metcalfe Act (Press Act of 1835): Charles Metcalfe liberated the Indian press from severe restrictions, earning the title 'Liberator of the Indian Press'.

The second half of the 19th century witnessed intense state crackdowns on the Indian press, countered brilliantly by nationalist papers like 'The Hindu', 'Amrita Bazar Patrika', and 'Kesari'.

• Vernacular Press Act (Gagging Act), 1878: Empowered district magistrates to demand security deposits and seize presses if vernacular papers published anything 'seditious'.
• Amrita Bazar Patrika's Overnight Switch: To escape the Vernacular Press Act of 1878, this paper edited by Sisir Kumar Ghosh and Motilal Ghosh converted overnight from Bengali to an English-language newspaper.
• Repeal of VPA by Lord Ripon (1882): Lord Ripon repealed the infamous Vernacular Press Act, restoring freedom of expression to native language publications.
• Trial of Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1897): Tilak was sentenced to 18 months rigorous imprisonment for his writings in 'Kesari', becoming the first nationalist martyr for press freedom.

British educational policies were initially aimed at producing clerical subordinates for administration but inadvertently fostered western ideals of liberty, democracy, and nationalism.

• Early Orientalist Institutions: Warren Hastings established Calcutta Madrasa (1781) for Islamic studies; Jonathan Duncan established Sanskrit College at Banaras (1791) for Hindu law and philosophy.
• Charter Act of 1813 & Financial Grant: Set aside an annual grant of 1 Lakh rupees for Indian education and permitted Christian missionaries to propagate religion.
• Macaulay's Minute (1835) & Downward Filtration: Advocated English as the medium of instruction. The 'Downward Filtration Theory' assumed education would trickle down from the upper/middle classes to the masses.
• Wood's Despatch (1854): Drafted by Sir Charles Wood; recommended primary education in vernaculars, higher education in English, creation of education departments in provinces, and universities in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras (1857).

As higher education expanded, several commissions were appointed to evaluate standards, structural flaws, and university autonomy leading up to the twentieth century.

• Hunter Education Commission (1882-83): Chaired by W.W. Hunter; reviewed progress of primary and secondary education, emphasizing state's special role in expanding primary vernacular education.
• Indian Universities Act, 1904: Passed under Lord Curzon on the recommendations of the Raleigh Commission; tightened government control over universities and reduced the number of elected senate members.
• Sadler University Commission (1917-19): Examined problems of Calcutta University; recommended a 12-year school course, separation of intermediate education, and establishment of new universities (e.g., Lucknow, Aligarh, Dacca).
• Wardha Scheme of Basic Education (1937): Propounded by Mahatma Gandhi; proposed free and compulsory education for 7 years through learning-by-doing and vocational handicraft training in mother tongue.