Topic overview
- Mahatma Gandhi transformed the Indian national movement from an elite-led petitioning campaign into a mass-based revolutionary struggle.
- He introduced unique socio-political philosophies anchored in Satya (Truth) and Ahimsa (Non-violence), redefining political morality.
- His leadership spanned three watershed mass movements: Non-Cooperation, Civil Disobedience, and Quit India, fundamentally altering the trajectory of modern Indian history.
- He systematically targeted social evils like untouchability, promoted communal harmony, and advanced village self-sufficiency through the constructive programme.
- His methods successfully galvanized diverse socio-economic strata, including peasants, workers, women, and the urban middle class, into a unified anti-imperialist front.
Concept 1
Early Experiments and Political Evolution in South Africa (1893-1914)
Gandhi developed his philosophy of Satyagraha and mass mobilization techniques during his two decades in South Africa.
Details
- Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi arrived in Durban, South Africa, in 1893 on a legal case for the firm Dada Abdulla & Co.
- He faced intense racial discrimination, exemplified by his ejection from a train compartment at Pietermaritzburg railway station in 1893.
- He founded the Natal Indian Congress in 1894 to unite the Indian community against discriminatory legislation.
- He established the weekly journal 'Indian Opinion' in 1903 to articulate the grievances of Indians and propagate his ideas.
- He founded Phoenix Farm in 1904 near Durban and Tolstoy Farm in 1910 near Johannesburg as communal living and training grounds for Satyagraha.
- He led the historic campaign against the £3 poll tax, the invalidation of non-Christian marriages, and the Asiatic Registration Act (Pass Laws).
Remember
- First application of Satyagraha: 1906 against the Transvaal Asiatic Ordinance.
- The Great March: Gandhi led over 2,000 striking Indian miners from Newcastle across the Transvaal border in November 1913.
- Smuts-Gandhi Agreement: Concluded in 1914, addressing major Indian demands regarding poll tax and marriage recognition.
- Return to India: Gandhi returned to India permanently on January 9, 1915, commemorated today as Pravasi Bharatiya Divas.
Examples & sources
- The Transvaal Indian Association resistance against compulsory finger-printing and registration certificates.
- The protest march of indentured laborers from the mines of Natal into Transvaal without permits in 1913.
Compare
- Contrast with Moderate methods: While Moderates relied on petitions and prayers, Gandhi employed direct action and self-suffering.
- Contrast with extremist methods: While extremists occasionally condoned secret violent action, Gandhi strictly adhered to absolute non-violence.
Common confusions
- Misconception: Gandhi went to South Africa solely as a political leader. Fact: He went as a professional lawyer and was radicalized by institutional racism.
- Misconception: Satyagraha was formulated instantly. Fact: It evolved gradually through years of experimentation, borrowing from Thoreau, Ruskin, and Tolstoy.
Exam points
- Chronology of South African institutions like Phoenix Farm and Tolstoy Farm.
- The exact year of Gandhi's return to India and the context of the Smuts-Gandhi agreement.
- Significance of Indian Opinion and Natal Indian Congress in early mobilization.
Concept 2
Early Regional Satyagrahas in India (1917-1918)
Champaran, Ahmedabad, and Kheda served as the laboratory for Gandhi's leadership within the Indian mainland.
Details
- Champaran Satyagraha (1917) was Gandhi's first civil disobedience movement in India, taken up at the invitation of Rajkumar Shukla.
- The core issue in Champaran was the Tinkathia system, which forced peasants to cultivate indigo on 3/20th of their land.
- Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918) involved a dispute between mill owners and workers over the discontinuation of the Plague Bonus.
- Gandhi undertook his first official hunger strike in India during the Ahmedabad mill dispute to secure a 35 percent wage hike for workers.
- Kheda Satyagraha (1918) was organized due to crop failure and the British government's refusal to remit land revenue under the Revenue Code.
- In Kheda, Gandhi was assisted by Vallabhbhai Patel and Indulal Yagnik in urging peasants to withhold taxes despite government coercion.
Remember
- Champaran outcome: The Tinkathia system was abolished and a partial refund was granted to exploited peasants.
- Ahmedabad outcome: Workers achieved a 35 percent wage increase through arbitration.
- Kheda outcome: The government issued secret instructions that revenue should be collected only from those who could afford to pay.
- Emergence of leadership: Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel emerged as a major national figure during the Kheda campaign.
Examples & sources
- Rajkumar Shukla persistently following Gandhi to the Lucknow Congress of 1916 to bring attention to Champaran.
- Anasuya Sarabhai seeking Gandhi's intervention in the labor dispute between Ahmedabad mill owners and weavers.
Compare
- Champaran addressed agrarian exploitation by European planters against tenant farmers.
- Kheda addressed state extraction of land revenue from land-owning peasants during times of famine and crop failure.
Common confusions
- Misconception: Champaran was Gandhi's first-ever political agitation. Fact: It was his first in India, but he had already led major campaigns in South Africa.
- Misconception: Gandhi fasted in Champaran. Fact: His first hunger strike in India occurred during the Ahmedabad Mill Strike.
Exam points
- The exact names of local leaders like Rajkumar Shukla and Vallabhbhai Patel.
- The precise economic grievances behind Tinkathia and the Plague Bonus.
- Chronological ordering of Champaran, Ahmedabad, and Kheda.
Concept 3
Non-Cooperation and Khilafat Movement (1920-1922)
Gandhi orchestrated a historic alliance between national political aspirations and pan-Islamist grievances against British rule.
Details
- The movement was formally launched on August 1, 1920, combining the grievances of the Khilafat wrong with the Punjab wrongs and Swaraj.
- The Nagpur Session of the Congress in December 1920 endorsed the Non-Cooperation program and reorganized the Congress Working Committee.
- The program included the surrender of titles, boycott of civil services, law courts, legislative councils, and foreign goods.
- Constructive aspects emphasized the promotion of Swadeshi, hand-spinning of Khadi, establishment of national schools, and removal of untouchability.
- The movement witnessed massive participation from peasants, students, women, and the working class across various provinces.
- Gandhi suspended the movement abruptly following the Chauri Chaura incident on February 5, 1922, where a mob burned a police station, killing 22 policemen.
Remember
- Khilafat leaders: Ali Brothers (Maulana Shaukat Ali and Maulana Mohammad Ali), Maulana Azad, and Hakim Ajmal Khan.
- Congress response: Moderate leaders like Surendranath Banerjea left the Congress over the adoption of extra-constitutional mass struggle.
- Arrest of Gandhi: Gandhi was arrested in March 1922 and sentenced to six years imprisonment.
- Impact: The movement fundamentally transformed the Congress into a mass political organization with grassroots reach.
Examples & sources
- Renunciation of legal practices by eminent lawyers like Chittaranjan Das, Motilal Nehru, and Jawaharlal Nehru.
- Burning of foreign cloth in public bonfires across major cities like Bombay and Calcutta.
Compare
- Contrast with Rowlatt Satyagraha: Non-Cooperation was a nationwide comprehensive withdrawal of cooperation, whereas the Rowlatt agitation was localized and brief.
- Contrast with Moderate tactics: Shift from constitutional agitation within legislatures to extra-parliamentary mass action.
Common confusions
- Misconception: The Khilafat movement was a purely religious agitation. Fact: It was an anti-imperialist political alliance against the dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire.
- Misconception: Chauri Chaura was the sole reason for suspension. Fact: Gandhi was also deeply concerned about widespread outbreaks of violence elsewhere and the exhaustion of the masses.
Exam points
- Resolutions passed at the Calcutta Special Session (1920) and Nagpur Annual Session (1920).
- Exact date and location of the Chauri Chaura incident.
- Institutional changes within the Congress, such as the creation of the 15-member CWC.
Concept 4
Civil Disobedience Movement and Salt Satyagraha (1930-1934)
Gandhi defied the colonial state through the symbolic breaking of the salt laws, precipitating a nationwide anti-tax campaign.
Details
- The movement was preceded by the Lahore Congress session of December 1929, where the Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence) resolution was passed.
- Gandhi issued an ultimatum of Eleven Demands to Lord Irwin on February 31, 1930, which was ignored by the Viceroy.
- The Salt March (Dandi March) began on March 12, 1930, with 78 chosen followers marching 240 miles from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi.
- Gandhi broke the salt law at Dandi on April 6, 1930, marking the formal inauguration of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
- The movement spread rapidly, witnessing widespread defiance of forest laws in the Central Provinces, no-chowkidari tax in Bihar, and picketing of liquor shops.
- The movement was temporarily halted following the Gandhi-Irwin Pact of March 1931, leading to Gandhi's participation in the Second Round Table Conference.
Remember
- Karachi Session (1931): Endorsed the Gandhi-Irwin Pact and passed landmark resolutions on Fundamental Rights and National Economic Programme.
- Second Round Table Conference (1931): Gandhi attended as the sole representative of the Indian National Congress; talks broke down over separate electorates.
- Communal Award (1932): Announced by Ramsay MacDonald, granting separate electorates to depressed classes; countered by Gandhi's epic fast unto death.
- Poona Pact (1932): Signed between B.R. Ambedkar and Madan Mohan Malaviya (on behalf of Gandhi), increasing reserved seats for Dalits instead of separate electorates.
Examples & sources
- Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan organizing the Khudai Khidmatgars (Red Shirts) in the North-West Frontier Province.
- C. Rajagopalachari leading a salt march from Trichy to Vedaranyam on the Coromandel coast.
Compare
- Contrast with Non-Cooperation: Civil Disobedience involved active non-payment of taxes and open violation of laws, not merely non-cooperation.
- Participation profile: Significantly higher involvement of women and business groups compared to the Non-Cooperation movement.
Common confusions
- Misconception: The Poona Pact was signed by Gandhi himself. Fact: Gandhi was fasting in Yerwada Jail; the pact was signed by Ambedkar and Dalit/Congress leaders like M.M. Malaviya.
- Misconception: The Dandi March was an isolated event. Fact: It served as a synchronized signal for nationwide law-breaking across different provinces.
Exam points
- Route, duration, and participant count of the Dandi March.
- Provisions and consequences of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact and Poona Pact.
- Role of regional leaders like Rani Gaidinliu, Sarojini Naidu, and Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan.
Concept 5
Quit India Movement and Final Phase (1942-1948)
Gandhi issued the ultimate call for immediate British withdrawal during the Second World War with the slogan 'Do or Die'.
Details
- The failure of the Cripps Mission in April 1942 convinced Gandhi that compromise with British imperialism was impossible.
- The All India Congress Committee passed the historic Quit India resolution at Gowalia Tank in Bombay on August 8, 1942.
- Gandhi gave his famous 'Do or Die' (Karenge ya Marenge) speech, urging Indians to act as free men and women.
- The British government launched Operation Zero Hour in the early hours of August 9, 1942, arresting almost all top-tier Congress leaders.
- In the absence of recognized leadership, the movement spontaneously transformed into an underground resistance and localized uprisings.
- Parallel governments were established in several regions, such as Ballia in Uttar Pradesh, Tamluk in Bengal, and Satara in Maharashtra.
Remember
- Character of the movement: Leaderless, highly militant, and unprecedented in terms of spontaneous mass participation and disruption of communication lines.
- Role of underground leaders: Ram Manohar Lohia, Jayaprakash Narayan, Aruna Asaf Ali, and Usha Mehta (who operated an underground radio station).
- Gandhi's 21-day fast in 1943: Undertaken in Aga Khan Palace to protest government violence and state repression.
- Release: Gandhi was unconditionally released from detention in May 1944 due to failing health.
Examples & sources
- Chitu Pandey leading the establishment of a parallel national government in Ballia for a brief period in August 1942.
- Satara witnessing the longest-running parallel government (Prati Sarkar) led by Nana Patil.
Compare
- Contrast with earlier movements: Quit India was characterized by widespread violence and sabotage, despite Gandhi's creed of non-violence, due to the sudden arrest of leadership.
- Attitude towards war: Shift from conditional support for the British war effort against fascism to immediate unconditional transfer of power.
Common confusions
- Misconception: Gandhi planned and directed the violent sabotage of 1942. Fact: The violence was spontaneous and leaderless following the sudden arrest of all principal leaders.
- Misconception: Gandhi actively participated in the post-war Cabinet Mission negotiations as a primary negotiator. Fact: While consulted, he was increasingly sidelined as negotiations shifted to constitutional power-transfer dynamics.
Exam points
- Exact date and venue of the Quit India resolution (August 8, 1942, Gowalia Tank, Bombay).
- Locations of parallel governments (Ballia, Satara, Tamluk).
- Role of underground activists like Usha Mehta and Jayaprakash Narayan.
Concept 6
Constructive Programme, Social Ideology and Harijan Uplift
Gandhi viewed social reform and economic self-reliance as essential prerequisites for political swaraj.
Details
- Gandhi formulated the Constructive Programme as a systematic blueprint for socio-economic transformation from the grassroots.
- The promotion of Khadi and village industries was designed to eradicate rural poverty, unemployment, and economic dependence on British textiles.
- He established the All India Spinners Association (1925) and All India Village Industries Association (1934) to institutionalize rural reconstruction.
- The crusade against untouchability became central to his mission; he founded the All India Anti-Untouchability League in 1932, later renamed Harijan Sevak Sangh.
- He published the weekly journal 'Harijan' starting in 1933 to advocate for the social, educational, and economic rights of depressed classes.
- He championed Hindu-Muslim unity throughout his life, undertaking numerous fasts to quell communal riots during the partition trauma of 1946-1947.
Remember
- Concept of Trusteeship: Wealthy individuals should hold their property as trustees for the benefit of society rather than as absolute owners.
- Basic Education (Nai Talim): Formulated at the Wardha Conference in 1937, emphasizing learning through productive manual work and crafts.
- Empowerment of Women: Gandhi strongly advocated for women's education, abolition of child marriage, purdah, and the dowry system, bringing women into the public sphere.
- Gram Swaraj: Envisioned independent, self-contained village republics practicing participatory democracy and economic self-sufficiency.
Examples & sources
- Gandhi's Harijan Yatra across India in 1933-1934 to campaign against untouchability.
- His lone peace mission through Noakhali and Calcutta in 1946-1947 to restore communal harmony during partition violence.
Compare
- Contrast with Ambedkar's approach: While Gandhi sought internal purification of Hinduism and social reform (temple entry, uplift), Ambedkar advocated for radical political safeguards, conversion, and legal annihilation of caste.
- Contrast with socialist approach: While socialists emphasized class war and state ownership, Gandhi proposed trusteeship and decentralized village cooperatives.
Common confusions
- Misconception: Gandhi supported the continuation of the caste system. Fact: While he initially defended Varna as a division of labor, he later rejected caste hierarchy entirely and advocated for inter-caste dining and marriage.
- Misconception: Constructive work was secondary to political agitations. Fact: Gandhi considered constructive work the true foundation of Swaraj, viewing mass movements as intermittent expressions.
Exam points
- Names of journals founded by Gandhi (Indian Opinion, Young India, Navajivan, Harijan).
- Key tenets of the Wardha Scheme of Basic Education (1937).
- Organizations established for social reform such as Harijan Sevak Sangh and All India Spinners Association.