Pre-historic Period & Paleolithic/Neolithic Ages Pre-historic Period & Paleolithic/Neolithic Ages

The Pre-historic Period refers to the time before the invention of writing. Our understanding of this era relies solely on archaeological excavations, including tools, pottery, habitats, and bones. It is broadly divided into the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age, based on the dominant material used for tools.

• Prehistory: Period before the development of writing.
• Protohistory: Period between prehistory and history, where writing existed but has not yet been deciphered (e.g., Indus Valley Civilisation).
• History: Period after the invention of writing, where written records are available and understood.

The Stone Age in India is further categorised into:

• Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age)
• Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age)
• Neolithic Age (New Stone Age)
• Chalcolithic Age (Copper Stone Age) - often considered a transition to the Bronze Age.

Period: Approximately 500,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE.

Characteristics:

• Humans were primarily hunter-gatherers and nomadic, constantly moving in search of food and shelter.
• Tools were crude, unpolished, and made from quartzite. Hence, early humans were sometimes called 'Quartzite Man'.
• No knowledge of agriculture, pottery, or house building.
• Fire was discovered but its extensive use for cooking or warmth was not widespread.
• Lived in rock shelters and caves.

Sub-divisions and Tools:

• Lower Palaeolithic (500,000 - 50,000 BCE): Hand axes, cleavers, choppers. Sites: Soan Valley (Pakistan), Belan Valley (UP), Bhimbetka (MP), Hunsgi (Karnataka).
• Middle Palaeolithic (50,000 - 40,000 BCE): Flake tools, scrapers, borers, points. Sites: Narmada Valley, Luni Valley.
• Upper Palaeolithic (40,000 - 10,000 BCE): Blade tools, burins, scrapers. Emergence of Homo sapiens. Sites: Kurnool Caves (AP), Belan Valley.

Important Sites:

• Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh): Famous for rock shelters and paintings from Palaeolithic to Mesolithic periods.
• Hunsgi (Karnataka): Rich in Lower Palaeolithic tools.
• Kurnool Caves (Andhra Pradesh): Evidence of fire use (ash deposits) and Upper Palaeolithic tools.

Period: Approximately 10,000 BCE to 6,000 BCE.

Characteristics:

• A transitional phase between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic ages.
• Climate became warmer and drier, leading to changes in flora and fauna.
• Tools were smaller, sharper, and more refined, known as microliths (tiny stone tools).
• Early evidence of animal domestication (dog, sheep, goat) found at sites like Adamgarh and Bagor.
• Fishing and fowling became important activities alongside hunting and gathering.
• Rock art and paintings became more prominent, depicting animals, hunting scenes, and human activities.

Important Sites:

• Adamgarh (Madhya Pradesh): Earliest evidence of animal domestication.
• Bagor (Rajasthan): One of the largest Mesolithic sites, with evidence of animal rearing.
• Langhnaj (Gujarat): Human skeletons and microliths found.
• Sarai Nahar Rai (Uttar Pradesh): Evidence of human skeletons, burial practices, and microliths.
• Mahadaha (Uttar Pradesh): Multiple burials, bone tools, and ornaments.

Period: Approximately 6,000 BCE to 1,000 BCE.

Characteristics:

• Marked by the Neolithic Revolution – a fundamental shift from food gathering to food production (agriculture).
• Beginning of settled life and the establishment of village communities.
• Tools were polished, ground, and more effective (e.g., polished stone axes, adzes, sickles).
• Invention of pottery for storing grains and cooking.
• Domestication of a wider range of animals (cattle, sheep, goat).
• Invention of the wheel, leading to advancements in transport and pottery.
• Pit dwellings and mud houses were common.

Important Sites:

• Mehrgarh (Balochistan, Pakistan): Earliest evidence of agriculture (wheat, barley) and settled life in the Indian subcontinent (around 7000 BCE).
• Burzahom (Jammu & Kashmir): Famous for pit dwellings, domestic dogs buried with masters, and polished stone tools.
• Gufkral (Jammu & Kashmir): 'Cave of the Potter', known for pit dwellings and agriculture.
• Chirand (Bihar): Extensive bone tools, especially from antlers.
• Koldihwa (Uttar Pradesh): Earliest evidence of rice cultivation in the world (around 6500 BCE).
• Maski, Brahmagiri (Karnataka): Neolithic settlements in South India.
• Daojali Hading (Assam): Polished stone tools and pottery.

Period: Approximately 3,000 BCE to 700 BCE (overlapping with late Neolithic and early Bronze Age).

Characteristics:

• First use of metal, primarily copper, alongside stone tools.
• Rural settlements, often larger than Neolithic villages.
• Developed pottery, notably Black-and-Red Ware (BRW).
• Cultivation of various crops: wheat, barley, rice, pulses, lentils.
• Specialised crafts like copper smithing, bead making, and terracotta art.
• Limited urbanisation, but village economies were dominant.
• Burial practices included urn burials.

Important Cultures and Sites:

• Ahar-Banas Culture (Rajasthan): Sites like Ahar and Gilund. Known for smelting and metalworking.
• Malwa Culture (Madhya Pradesh): Sites like Navdatoli and Eran. Known for rich Chalcolithic pottery.
• Jorwe Culture (Maharashtra): Sites like Inamgaon, Daimabad. Largest Chalcolithic settlement in India (Daimabad). Evidence of irrigation and fortifications.
• Kayatha Culture (Madhya Pradesh): Earliest Chalcolithic culture in India.
• Nevasa, Chandoli (Maharashtra): Other important Jorwe culture sites.

Key Sites and their Significance:

Rock Art:

• Found extensively in Mesolithic sites, notably Bhimbetka.
• Depictions include hunting scenes, animal figures (deer, bison, tigers), human figures, and daily life.
• Used natural colours derived from minerals.
• Provides insights into the social life, beliefs, and environment of prehistoric people.