Chronology: c. 1500-1000 BCE. Also known as the Rigvedic Period, as the Rig Veda is the primary source of information.
Geographical Area: Primarily the Sapta-Sindhu region (land of seven rivers) – Indus (Sindhu) and its five tributaries (Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej) along with the Saraswati. Modern-day Punjab and parts of Afghanistan.
Polity: Tribal (Janapada), monarchical but not absolute. The 'Rajan' (King) was primarily a war leader, elected by the 'Vis' (clan) or 'Jana' (tribe). Power was limited by tribal assemblies.
Assemblies: Four main assemblies: Sabha (council of elders/nobles, judicial functions), Samiti (general assembly of the entire tribe, elected/re-elected the Rajan), Vidatha (oldest assembly, tribal meeting for religious and military purposes, women participated), and Gana (smaller tribal unit).
Social Structure: Based on Varna system, but flexible. Primarily divided into Aryans (fair-skinned, three varnas: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas) and Non-Aryans (Dasyus/Dasas, dark-skinned). Occupation was not hereditary.
Family: Patriarchal (Kula), joint family system prevalent. The 'Kulapa' (head of the family) held authority.
Women's Status: Relatively high. Participated in assemblies (Vidatha), could choose husbands, received education (e.g., Apala, Lopamudra, Ghosha, Vishwavara were Rigvedic poetesses). Monogamy was common, but polygamy existed among royalty.
Economy: Predominantly pastoral. Cattle ('Gau') were the most important form of wealth ('Gavishti' for cattle raids). Agriculture was secondary (barley 'Yava' was the main crop). Barter system for trade.
Religion: Worship of nature deities. Indra (war, rain, thunder - most important), Agni (fire god, intermediary), Varuna (cosmic order 'Rita'), Soma (plant deity), Surya (sun), Usha (dawn), Aditi (mother of gods). No idol worship, no temples. Sacrifices were simple, mainly offerings of milk, grain, ghee.