The colonial era in India

Overview & Fundamental Concept

Pointwise AISSEE Class 9 Social Science guide for The Colonial Era in India (Topic 23). Covers European trade, Battles of Plassey and Buxar, Subsidiary Alliance, Doctrine of Lapse, 3 Land Revenue Systems, Revolt of 1857, solved models, and 10 practice drills.

• European Commercial Sequence:
  • Portuguese: First to arrive; Vasco da Gama landed at Calicut (Kappad beach) on 20 May 1498, welcomed by Hindu ruler King Zamorin. Alfonso de Albuquerque captured Goa from Bijapur in 1510.
  • English East India Company (EIC): Granted a 15-year monopoly royal charter by Queen Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600. Captain William Hawkins visited Mughal Emperor Jahangir's court in 1608; Sir Thomas Roe secured imperial trading farmans in 1615.
  • Dutch: United East India Company (VOC) formed in 1602; focused primarily on the spice trade of Indonesia.
  • French: French East India Company founded by Jean-Baptiste Colbert in 1664; headquarters at Pondicherry under Governor Joseph François Dupleix.
• The Battle of Plassey (23 June 1757):
  • Causes: Misuse of duty-free trade passes (Dastaks) by EIC servants; fortification of Calcutta without permission; Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah captured Fort William (alleged Black Hole tragedy).
  • The Betrayal: Robert Clive forged a secret conspiracy with Nawab's Commander-in-Chief Mir Jafar, banker Jagat Seth, and merchant Omichand.
  • Outcome: Fought on the banks of Bhagirathi river near Plassey (Palashi). Mir Jafar's troops stood inactive; Siraj-ud-Daulah was captured and executed. Mir Jafar was installed as the 'Puppet Nawab', granting 24 Parganas zamindari to the British.
• The Battle of Buxar (22 October 1764):
  • Causes: Mir Qasim (who replaced Mir Jafar in 1760) shifted his capital from Murshidabad to Munger, introduced military reforms, and abolished all internal trade transit duties to level the field for Indian merchants.
  • The Triple Alliance: Mir Qasim joined hands with Shuja-ud-Daulah (Nawab of Awadh) and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II.
  • Battle & Significance: British army commanded by Major Hector Munro decisively routed the combined Indian alliance at Buxar (Bihar). Established British military superiority over the Mughal sovereign.
• The Treaty of Allahabad (August 1765):
  • Signed between Robert Clive and Shah Alam II / Shuja-ud-Daulah.
  • Mughal Emperor granted the Diwani Rights (exclusive right to collect civil land revenue and administer civil justice) of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa to the British East India Company.
  • Dual System of Government (1765–1772): EIC held the Diwani (revenue and finances without responsibility), while the puppet Nawab held the Nizamat (law, order, and police administration with zero revenue). Ended in massive famine of 1770; abolished by Warren Hastings in 1772.

• The Subsidiary Alliance System (Introduced 1798 by Lord Wellesley):
  • Designed to establish British paramountcy and eliminate French influence without direct administrative expenditure.
  • Core Conditions:
    1. The Indian ruler was forbidden from keeping an independent armed force.
    2. Protected by British forces stationed in the state, paid for by the Indian ruler (or ceding territory in default).
    3. A British diplomat called a Resident was stationed permanently in the royal court.
    4. Ruler could not employ any other European without British permission, nor negotiate with another state.
  • States Annexed/Allied: Hyderabad was the FIRST state to enter the alliance (1798), followed by Mysore (1799 after Tipu Sultan's death in Fourth Anglo-Mysore War), Tanjore (1799), Awadh (1801), and the Peshwa (Treaty of Bassein 1802).
• The Doctrine of Lapse (Introduced by Lord Dalhousie, Governor-General 1848–1856):
  • Based on customary feudal law: If an Indian ruler died without a natural biological male heir, his state would 'lapse' (automatically pass) into British dominion.
  • Adopted sons were barred from inheriting sovereignty/political rule (though could inherit private personal property).
  • Chronological Order of Annexations:
    1. Satara (1848) — FIRST state annexed.
    2. Sambalpur (Odisha) and Jaitpur (1849).
    3. Baghat (1850).
    4. Udaipur (1852).
    5. Jhansi (1853) — Rani Lakshmibai's adopted son Anand Rao (Damodar Rao) was denied succession.
    6. Nagpur (1854).
  • Annexation of Awadh (1856): Annexed not through Doctrine of Lapse, but on the false pretext of 'misgovernance' (maladministration) by Nawab Wajid Ali Shah. Deeply outraged Indian sepoys who predominantly hailed from Awadh (known as the 'Nursery of the Bengal Army').

• 1. The Permanent Settlement (Zamindari System • 1793):
  • Introduced by Lord Cornwallis in 1793 in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa (later extended to Varanasi and Northern Carnatic, covering ~19% of British India).
  • Features: Zamindars were recognized as absolute hereditary owners of the land.
  • Revenue demand was fixed permanently in perpetuity: 10/11th went to the British Government, and 1/11th was retained by the Zamindar.
  • Sunset Law: If a zamindar failed to deposit the specified revenue before sunset on the appointed date, his estate was publicly auctioned.
• 2. The Ryotwari System (1820):
  • Conceived by Alexander Read (1792) and formally introduced by Sir Thomas Munro (1820) in Madras and Bombay Presidencies (covering ~51% of British India).
  • Features: No intermediaries. Settlement made directly with the individual peasant/cultivator (Ryot), who was recognized as landowner as long as tax was paid.
  • Tax rates were extremely exorbitant (50% to 60% of produce) and subject to periodic upward revision every 20–30 years.
• 3. The Mahalwari System (1822):
  • Devised by Holt Mackenzie (1822) and reformed by William Bentinck / Robert Martins Bird (1833) in the North-Western Provinces, Central Provinces, and Punjab (covering ~30% of British India).
  • Features: Unit of assessment was the entire village estate called Mahal.
  • Village headman (Lambardar) was held collectively responsible for collecting and submitting land revenue on behalf of the entire village community.
• Commercialization of Agriculture & Peasant Exploitation:
  • British forced farmers to grow cash crops for British factories (cotton, jute, opium, sugarcane, and indigo) rather than food grains, triggering catastrophic famines.
  • Indigo Revolt (Neel Bidroha • 1859): Started in Nadia district of Bengal by Bishnu Charan Biswas and Digambar Biswas against oppressive European planters (Tinkathia forced cultivation).
  • Exposed in the renowned Bengali drama Neel Darpan written by Dinabandhu Mitra.

• Causes of the Great Revolt of 1857:
  • Political: Doctrine of Lapse, annexation of Awadh (1856), pension cancellation for Nana Saheb.
  • Economic: Ruthless land revenue extortion, destruction of traditional Indian handicrafts and textile weavers.
  • Social-Religious: Religious Disabilities Act 1850, General Service Enlistment Act 1856 (crossing the sea violated caste taboo), fear of forced conversion to Christianity.
  • Military: Racial discrimination in pay, promotions, and living quarters; Indian sepoys paid 1/3rd of British soldier wages.
• The Immediate Trigger: The Greased Cartridge:
  • Introduction of the new Enfield P-53 Rifle.
  • The paper cartridge had to be bitten off before loading into the rifle. Rumors spread that the grease contained cow fat (sacred to Hindus) and pig fat (forbidden to Muslims).
• Outbreak of the Revolt:
  • Barrackpore (29 March 1857): Sepoy Mangal Pandey of the 34th Bengal Native Infantry revolted and shot British officers Lieutenant Baugh and Major Hewson. He was court-martialed and hanged on 8 April 1857.
  • Meerut (10 May 1857): 85 sepoys of the 3rd Light Cavalry refused greased cartridges and were jailed. On 10 May, fellow sepoys mutinied, killed European officers, broke open prisons, and marched to Delhi.
  • Delhi: Proclaimed aged Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar as the symbolic leader and Shahenshah-e-Hindustan. Military defense was headed by General Bakht Khan.
• Major Storm Centers & Heroic Leaders:
  • Delhi: Bahadur Shah Zafar (proclaimed Shahenshah-e-Hindustan) and military general Bakht Khan (suppressed by John Nicholson & Major Hudson).
  • Kanpur: Nana Saheb (real name Dhondu Pant, adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II) assisted by military genius Tantia Tope (real name Ramachandra Pandurang) and Azimullah Khan (suppressed by Sir Colin Campbell & Havelock).
  • Lucknow: Begum Hazrat Mahal proclaimed her minor son Birjis Qadr Nawab and mobilized Awadh taluqdars (suppressed by Sir Colin Campbell).
  • Jhansi & Gwalior: Rani Lakshmibai (childhood name Manikarnika / Manu) fought heroically after her adopted son Damodar Rao was denied succession ('Khoob ladi mardani woh toh Jhansi wali rani thi'); joined by Tantia Tope to capture Gwalior; martyred fighting at Kotah-ki-Serai near Gwalior on 18 June 1858 (British Commander Sir Hugh Rose described her as 'the bravest and best military leader of the rebels').
  • Bihar (Arrah / Jagdishpur): 80-year-old Rajput chieftain Kunwar Singh and his brother Amar Singh routed British forces across Shahabad and Azamgarh.
  • Faizabad: Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah, fiery rebel preacher and tactician who defeated British detachments in Awadh.
  • Bareilly (Rohilkhand): Khan Bahadur Khan, descendant of former Rohilla rulers, proclaimed head of regional rebel administration.
• Historical Interpretations:
  • British colonial historians labeled the uprising as merely a 'Sepoy Mutiny' (Sir John Lawrence and Seeley).
  • Nationalist leader Vinayak Damodar (V.D.) Savarkar in his 1909 seminal work characterized it as 'The First War of Indian Independence'.
  • Marxist and modern historians recognize it as a massive popular anti-imperialist agrarian and military revolt.
• The Government of India Act 1858 (Aftermath):
  • Passed on 2 August 1858; liquidated the British East India Company and transferred direct governance to the British Crown (Queen Victoria).
  • Queen Victoria's Proclamation (1 November 1858): Read out by Lord Canning at the Grand Darbar in Allahabad; promised no further territorial annexations, complete religious non-interference, and equal legal protection.
  • The Three Historic British Administrative 'Firsts':
    1. First Governor-General of Bengal: Warren Hastings (Regulating Act 1773).
    2. First Governor-General of India: Lord William Bentinck (Charter Act 1833).
    3. First Viceroy of India: Lord Canning (Government of India Act 1858 • also the last Governor-General under EIC).
  • Abolition of Dual Control: The Board of Control and Court of Directors were abolished; a new cabinet post created: Secretary of State for India, assisted by a 15-member Council of India.
  • Military Reorganization (Peel Commission): European-to-Indian soldier ratio increased to 1:2 in Bengal (1:3 in Madras/Bombay); artillery placed exclusively under British officers; regiments segregated strictly along caste and regional fault-lines ('divide and rule').