The rise of Marathas

Overview & Fundamental Concept

Pointwise AISSEE Class 9 Social Science guide for The Rise of Marathas (Topic 22). Explores Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, Ashtapradhan, Chauth & Sardeshmukhi, Ganimi Kava, Peshwas, Third Battle of Panipat, solved models, and 10 practice drills.

• Birth & Formative Influences:
  • Born on 19 February 1630 at the hill fort of Shivneri near Junnar (Pune district).
  • Father: Shahji Bhonsle, a prominent military commander serving the Ahmadnagar and Bijapur sultanates.
  • Mother: Jijabai, who instilled deep spiritual values, valor, and stories of Ramayana and Mahabharata.
  • Guardian & Administrator: Dadoji Kondadeo, who trained Shivaji in weapons, horse riding, and governance.
• Early Fort Conquests & Swarajya:
  • At the young age of 16 (1646), Shivaji captured the strategic hill fort of Torna from Bijapur.
  • Rapidly conquered and refortified key bastions: Chakan, Kondana (later renamed Sinhagad by Shivaji in honor of Tanaji Malusare), and Raigad (which became his future imperial capital).
• Encounter with Afzal Khan (1659):
  • Adilshahi Sultanate of Bijapur dispatched veteran general Afzal Khan with orders to crush Shivaji.
  • Meeting took place at the foothills of Pratapgad on 10 November 1659. When Afzal Khan tried to strangle Shivaji during an embrace, Shivaji retaliated using concealed Bagh Nakh (tiger claws) and Bichuwa (dagger), killing the general and routing the Bijapuri army.
• Night Raid on Shaista Khan (1663):
  • Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb sent his maternal uncle Shaista Khan to the Deccan.
  • In April 1663, Shivaji executed a daring midnight infiltration into Shaista Khan's heavily guarded palace (Lal Mahal in Pune), severing Shaista Khan's fingers and forcing him to flee.
• Sack of Surat (1664 & 1670):
  • Shivaji raided the wealthy Mughal port city of Surat twice, acquiring enormous plunder to finance his army and fort defenses without harming European trading lodges or innocent citizens.

• The Treaty of Purandar (11 June 1665):
  • Aurangzeb dispatched his trusted general, Mirza Raja Jai Singh of Amber, who surrounded the Purandar Fort (heroically defended by Murarbaji Deshpande).
  • Terms of the Treaty:
    1. Shivaji surrendered 23 out of 35 forts (yielding 4 lakh hons annual revenue) to the Mughals.
    2. Retained 12 forts for himself.
    3. Shivaji's elder son Sambhaji was granted a mansab of 5,000 in the Mughal imperial army.
    4. Shivaji agreed to visit Emperor Aurangzeb's court at Agra.
• Daring Escape from Agra (1666):
  • In May 1666, Shivaji and Sambhaji attended Aurangzeb's court in Agra. When placed behind third-grade nobles (nobles of 5,000 rank), Shivaji protested vehemently and was placed under house arrest.
  • On 17 August 1666, feigning illness, Shivaji arranged large baskets of sweets and fruits to be sent daily to holy men and beggars. Shivaji and Sambhaji hid inside the baskets and slipped past Mughal guards undetected, returning safely to Maharashtra.
• Coronation at Raigad (6 June 1674):
  • Shivaji was formally crowned sovereign monarch with Vedic rituals by renowned Sanskrit scholar Pandit Gaga Bhatt of Varanasi at Raigad Fort.
  • Assumed the illustrious title of Chhatrapati ('Lord of the Royal Umbrella') and Haindava Dharmoddharak (Protector of Hindu Dharma).
  • Inaugurated a new royal calendar (Rajyabhisheka Shaka) and issued royal gold coins called Hon and copper coins called Shivrai.

• The Ashtapradhan (Council of Eight Ministers):
  • Shivaji instituted an advisory council of eight ministers directly accountable to him. None of the offices were hereditary; all ministers except the Nyayadhish and Panditrao were required to lead military campaigns.
  • 1. Peshwa (Pant Pradhan): Prime Minister; supervised general civil and military administration.
  • 2. Amatya (Majumdar): Finance Minister; managed state revenue, accounts, and audits.
  • 3. Senapati (Sar-i-Naubat): Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces.
  • 4. Sumant (Dabir): Foreign Secretary; handled diplomacy and foreign affairs.
  • 5. Sachiv (Shurnavis): Home Secretary; managed royal correspondence and royal edicts.
  • 6. Mantri (Waqia-Navis): Intelligence Minister; kept daily court records and monitored security.
  • 7. Nyayadhish: Chief Justice; supervised civil and criminal justice according to Hindu law.
  • 8. Panditrao (Dhanadhyaksha): High Priest; managed religious charities and social welfare.
• Revenue System (Chauth & Sardeshmukhi):
  • Abolished oppressive zamindari/jagirdari intermediaries and dealt directly with ryots (cultivators).
  • Land measured using standard measuring rod called the Kathi.
  • Assessment fixed at 33% initially, later revised to 40% of produce after eliminating non-statutory taxes.
  • Chauth (1/4th or 25%): Tax collected from neighbouring non-Maratha territories as a tribute in exchange for protection against external plunder and Maratha raids.
  • Sardeshmukhi (1/10th or 10%): An additional hereditary tax levied on land revenue, claiming Shivaji's sovereign right as the supreme hereditary headman (Sardeshmukh) of Maharashtra.
• Military Architecture & Guerilla Tactics:
  • Ganimi Kava: Guerrilla hill warfare relying on speed, surprise, knowledge of Sahyadri terrain, and quick ambushes.
  • Fort Architecture: Controlled over 300 hill and coastal forts (including Sindhudurg and Vijaydurg built on islands). Each fort was overseen by three equal officers (Havaldar, Sabnis, and Karkhanis) to prevent treachery.
  • Maratha Navy: Founded modern Indian naval power to safeguard Konkan coastline from Siddis, Portuguese, and British; led by legendary Admiral Kanhoji Angre.

• Rise of the Peshwas:
  • Following Shivaji's death, his sons Sambhaji and Rajaram fought valiantly against Aurangzeb. Later, Queen Tarabai led the Maratha resistance.
  • Under Shivaji's grandson Chhatrapati Shahu, the executive authority shifted to the hereditary prime minister (Peshwa) based at Pune (Shanivar Wada).
  • 1. Balaji Vishwanath (1713–1720): First prominent hereditary Peshwa; obtained royal farmans from Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar for collecting Chauth and Sardeshmukhi across six Deccan subahs.
  • 2. Baji Rao I (1720–1740): Renowned military genius who championed Hindu Pad Padshahi; remained undefeated in 41 battles (famous victory at Battle of Palkhed 1728 over Nizam-ul-Mulk); expanded Maratha power to Malwa, Gujarat, and the outskirts of Delhi ('Strike at the trunk of the decaying tree, and the branches will fall of themselves').
  • 3. Balaji Baji Rao / Nana Saheb (1740–1761): Extended Maratha confederacy to its maximum territorial extent, reaching Attock (modern Pakistan) and Odisha.
• The Third Battle of Panipat (14 January 1761):
  • Combatants: Maratha confederacy army led by Sadashivrao Bhau (and nominal commander Vishwasrao) vs. Afghan ruler Ahmad Shah Abdali (Durrani) supported by Najib-ud-Daulah (Rohillas) and Shuja-ud-Daulah (Nawab of Awadh).
  • Artillery Role: Maratha European-style trained artillery was commanded by Ibrahim Khan Gardi.
  • Causes of Defeat: Extended supply lines cut off by Abdali; starvation in Maratha camp; rejection of regional alliances (alienated Rajputs and Jats); unsuitability of heavy baggage train and non-combatant pilgrims in North Indian open plains.
  • Tragic Losses: Vishwasrao, Sadashivrao Bhau, and 28,000 Maratha soldiers fell in battle. The famous merchant code reported: 'Two pearls have been dissolved, twenty-seven gold mohurs have been lost, and of the silver and copper the total cannot be cast up.'
  • Hearing the news, Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao died of grief in June 1761. The defeat halted Maratha expansion to Delhi and cleared the path for British East India Company hegemony.