British Administration & Economic Policiesब्रिटिश प्रशासनिक एवं आर्थिक नीतियां

Explanation: Charter Act of 1813: First statutory allocation of ₹1 lakh annually for the revival and promotion of literature and the encouragement of learned natives of India. Hindu College, Calcutta (1817): Established by David Hare and Raja Ram Mohan Roy; later transformed into Presidency College in 1855. Adam's Reports (1835, 1836, 1838): Surveyed over 100,000 indigenous village pathshalas in Bengal and Bihar; recommended improving existing vernacular schools through government inspection rather than destroying them. Macaulay's Minute (Feb 1835): Advised English as the medium of higher education; propounded the 'Downwards Filtration Theory'. Wood's Despatch (1854): Recommended vernacular primary schools, Anglo-vernacular high schools, affiliated universities at Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras, and a system of grants-in-aid.

Explanation: Poverty and Un-British Rule in India (1901): Landmark book by Dadabhai Naoroji defining the drain as that portion of national product exported out of India without any direct economic or commercial return. Channels of Drain: Home Charges (pensions, dividends of guaranteed railways, Secretary of State's office expenses), remittances by European officials, and interest on public debt. Key Nationalist Economic Critics: Dadabhai Naoroji ('The Grand Old Man of India'), R.C. Dutt (*The Economic History of India*), Justice M.G. Ranade (*Essays in Indian Economics*), G. Subramania Iyer (founder of *The Hindu*), and G.V. Joshi. Loyalist Dissent: Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and Raja Shiv Prasad of Benaras established the United Patriotic Association (1888) to counter Congress propaganda and defend British rule.

Explanation: Abolition of Sati (1829): Enacted Bengal Regulation XVII declaring Sati illegal and punishable as culpable homicide; championed by Raja Ram Mohan Roy. Suppression of Thuggee (1830–1837): Orchestrated by Captain William Sleeman using specialized courts and summary depositions. Charter Act of 1833: Transformed the Governor-General of Bengal into the 'Governor-General of India' (Bentinck being the first); added a Fourth (Law) Member (Macaulay). Judicial Reforms: Abolished the provincial Courts of Appeal and Circuit established by Cornwallis; transferred their duties to District and Sessions Judges; introduced vernacular languages into court proceedings instead of Persian.

Explanation: Macaulay's Minute (1835): Aimed to create 'a class of persons Indian in blood and colour, but English in tastes, in opinions, in morals and in intellect.' Wood's Despatch (1854): Recommended Departments of Public Instruction in each province, teacher training institutes, and women's education. Hunter Commission (1882): Emphasized that primary education must be extended to masses in vernacular languages and managed by local boards. Raleigh Commission / Universities Act (1902/1904): Under Lord Curzon; tightened official government control over university senates and private colleges. Sadler Commission (1917–1919): Studied Calcutta University; recommended 12-year school course (intermediate) before degree. Hartog Committee (1929): Warned against hasty expansion and targeted qualitative deterioration and high dropout rates (wastage and stagnation).

Explanation: Calcutta Corporation Act (1899): Slashed elected Indian representatives by one-third, giving Europeans a built-in majority. Indian Universities Act (1904): Based on Raleigh Commission; placed college affiliations and university governance under strict government veto. Official Secrets Act (1904): Expanded the definition of 'sedition' to stifle investigative journalism and political criticism. Ancient Monuments Preservation Act (1904): Established the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) under John Marshall. Partition of Bengal (October 16, 1905): Divided Bengal ostensibly for administrative efficiency, but strategically to divide the nationalist epicenter along communal Hindu-Muslim lines.

Explanation: Deindustrialization: Traditional artisans, weavers, and metallurgists were ruined by uninhibited duty-free imports of British factory-made goods from 1813 onwards. Pattern of Industrial Growth: Limited solely to consumer goods (cotton mills in Bombay/Ahmedabad, jute mills in Bengal, sugar and paper). Absence of Core Industries: Till World War I, India manufactured virtually no machines, locomotives, electrical equipment, or heavy industrial chemicals. TISCO Exception (1907): Jamsetji Tata and Dorabji Tata established the Tata Iron and Steel Company at Jamshedpur through indigenous Indian capital, overcoming tremendous bureaucratic resistance from colonial authorities.

Explanation: Policy of Masterly Inactivity (1864–1876): Championed by Sir John Lawrence (Viceroy 1864–69); principle of strict non-interference in Afghan civil wars as long as no foreign power intervened. Lord Lytton's Forward Policy (1876–1880): Mandated by Disraeli; insisted on stationing a permanent British Resident at Kabul and dismembering Afghanistan into regional dependencies. Treaty of Gandamak (May 1879): Amir Yakub Khan surrendered foreign affairs to the British and accepted British Resident Sir Louis Cavagnari. Cavagnari Murder & Fall of Lytton: Cavagnari and his staff were massacred in Kabul in September 1879, repeating the disaster of the First Afghan War and discrediting Lytton's Forward Policy.

Explanation: The Napoleonic Threat: Napoleon captured Malta and landed in Egypt (July 1798) intending to link up with anti-British Indian rulers like Tipu Sultan and Zaman Shah of Afghanistan. Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799): Tipu Sultan refused to sever ties with the French Jacobin Club; British forces under General Harris stormed Seringapatam on May 4, 1799; Tipu was killed in action. Treaty of Bassein (1802): Forced on Peshwa Baji Rao II, placing British troops in Pune and shattering the Maratha Confederacy. Self-Description: Wellesley proudly styled himself a 'Bengal Tiger', declaring that he transformed the British from 'a power in India' into 'the paramount power of India'.

Explanation: Definition: Reciprocal tariff concessions agreed among countries of the British Empire, erecting protective walls against non-Empire nations (like the US, Germany, Japan) while opening colonial markets to Britain. Ottawa Conference (1932): Formally established Imperial Preference across the British Commonwealth during the Great Depression. Impact on India: British cotton textiles and steel received preferential import duty rates in India, crippling emerging indigenous Indian mills and diverting trade away from natural non-British trading partners. Nationalist Response: The Indian Legislative Assembly and Congress denounced the Ottawa pact as an economic shackle designed to rescue Lancashire at India's expense.

Explanation: Zamindari (Permanent Settlement, 1793): Introduced by Cornwallis in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, and Northern Circars (~19% of British India); zamindars retained 1/11th of rent, paying 10/11ths to the Company. Ryotwari System (1820): Formulated by Thomas Munro and Alexander Read in Madras, Bombay, Assam, and Coorg (~51% of British India); direct contract with the peasant (Ryot); assessed at 50% of produce, revised periodically every 20–30 years. Mahalwari System (1822/1833): Designed by Holt Mackenzie and modified by Merttins Bird in Gangetic Valley, North-Western Provinces, Central Provinces, and Punjab (~30% of British India); settlement made with the village council (Panchayat/Lambardar) for the entire estate (Mahal).

Explanation: Sunset Law (Gurusaday Dutt rule): If the zamindar failed to deposit the state's revenue into the treasury before sunset on the appointed date, his estate was auctioned to the highest bidder. Regulation VII of 1799 (Qanun Haftam): Granted draconian powers to zamindars to arrest recalcitrant ryots and seize their crops and cattle without a prior court decree. Regulation V of 1812 (Qanun Panjam): Softened aspects of seizure but gave zamindars sweeping rights to cancel old leases, entrenching rack-renting. Bengal Tenancy Act of 1885: Enacted nearly a century later to finally confer occupancy rights and tenurial protection on long-standing cultivators.

Explanation: Medium of Instruction: Vernacular languages for primary school education, Anglo-Vernacular for high schools, and English for college and university education. Department of Public Instruction (DPI): Set up in all five provinces (Bengal, Bombay, Madras, Punjab, and North-Western Provinces). Affiliating Universities: Recommended universities modeled on the University of London at Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras (established in 1857) to conduct exams and grant degrees. Grants-in-Aid System: Financial aid to private schools and colleges irrespective of religion, provided they followed secular inspection and charged reasonable fees.

Explanation: First Factory Act (1881): Under Lord Ripon; prohibited employment of children below 7 years; fixed 9-hour limit for children aged 7–12; excluded tea/coffee plantations. Second Factory Act (1891): Under Lord Lansdowne; raised child minimum age to 9; fixed 11 hours daily for women with 1.5-hour lunch break; introduced weekly holiday for all. Trade Unions Act (1926): Provided legal recognition and immunity to registered trade unions from criminal conspiracy charges. Whitley Commission (1929–1931): Recommended statutory wage boards, standard 54-hour working week in perennial factories, maternity benefits, and housing improvements. Factories Act of 1934: Reduced working week to 54 hours in perennial factories and prohibited children under 12.

Explanation: Trigger: Bihari Lal Gupta, an Indian ICS officer promoted to District Magistrate, found himself legally unable to try a European offender, bringing the racial anomaly to Ripon's attention. Anglo-Indian Reaction: Formed the European Defence Association; raised funds; threatened to kidnap Viceroy Lord Ripon and put him on a steamer to England. Compromise of 1884: Indian magistrates could try Europeans, but European accused had the right to claim trial by a jury comprising at least half Europeans or Americans. Nationalist Lesson: The fierce solidarity and political success of the European agitation taught Indian leaders (like Surendranath Banerjea) the vital necessity of forming an all-India political organization, directly accelerating the foundation of the Indian National Congress in 1885.

Explanation: Imperial Delhi Durbar (1877): Proclaimed Queen Victoria 'Kaiser-i-Hind' with lavish extravagance amidst a devastating famine killing millions. Vernacular Press Act (1878): Required Indian-language newspaper editors to deposit heavy bonds and submit proofs for pre-censorship; no right of appeal to a court of law; exempted English newspapers. Indian Arms Act (1878): Made carrying or possessing firearms without a license a criminal offence for Indians, while Europeans and Anglo-Indians were exempted. Reduction of Civil Service Age (1878): Slashed the maximum entrance age for the ICS examination from 21 to 19 years to practically exclude Indian candidates.

Explanation: 1899–1905: Lord Curzon (Partition of Bengal). 1905–1910: Lord Minto II (Morley-Minto Reforms 1909, foundation of Muslim League 1906). 1910–1916: Lord Hardinge II (Capital shifted to Delhi, bomb thrown by Rashbehari Bose). 1916–1921: Lord Chelmsford (Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh, Non-Cooperation Movement). 1921–1926: Lord Reading (Chauri Chaura, Swaraj Party, Kakori train action). 1926–1931: Lord Irwin (Simon Commission, Lahore Congress, Gandhi-Irwin Pact). 1931–1936: Lord Willingdon (Communal Award 1932, Poona Pact, GOI Act 1935). 1936–1943: Lord Linlithgow (Longest viceregal tenure; August Offer 1940, Cripps Mission, Quit India Movement 1942).

Explanation: Separation of Powers (Cornwallis Code 1793): Divested District Collectors of judicial/magisterial powers; revenue administration was strictly separated from civil justice. Police System (1791): Relieved zamindars of policing; introduced Thanas headed by Darogas under District Magistrates; SP office created in 1808. Supreme Court at Calcutta (1774): Established by Regulating Act 1773; had a Chief Justice and 3 puisne judges; had jurisdiction over all British subjects and inhabitants of Calcutta. Indian Penal Code (1860): Unified criminal law across British India based on principles of English common law, eliminating chaotic regional Sharia and Hindu personal criminal codes.

Explanation: Repeal of Vernacular Press Act (1882): Restored equal legal status between Indian vernacular newspapers and Anglo-Indian English journals. First Factory Act (1881): First legislative intervention to protect child labor in large mechanised factories. Father of Local Self-Government (Resolution of 1882): Created non-official majority municipal committees and district rural boards with financial decentralization. Hunter Commission on Education (1882): Emphasized primary and vocational education. Famine Code (1883): Formulated following the recommendations of the Strachey Famine Commission.

Explanation: Governor of Bengal: Robert Clive (First: 1757–1760; instituted the Dual System of Government in 1765). Governor-General of Bengal: Warren Hastings (First: 1773 under the Regulating Act of 1773, assisted by a 4-member council). Governor-General of India: Lord William Bentinck (First: 1833 under the Charter Act of 1833, centralized all civil and military authority). Viceroy and Governor-General of India: Lord Canning (First: November 1858 under the Government of India Act 1858, direct representative of the British Crown).

Explanation: First Factory Act 1881 (Lord Ripon): Applied only to factories employing 100+ workers and using power; banned child labor below age 7; 9 hours limit for ages 7–12; 4 monthly holidays; excluded British-owned tea and coffee plantations. Second Factory Act 1891 (Lord Lansdowne): Applied to factories with 50+ workers; banned child labor below age 9; 7 hours daily limit for ages 9–14; fixed 11 hours maximum daily for women with 1.5-hour rest; weekly Sunday holiday established for all workers. Narayan Meghaji Lokhande: Associated with the 1884 Bombay millhands' conference; founded Bombay Millhands Association (1890); acclaimed as the 'Father of Indian Trade Union Movement'.

Explanation: First Formulation of Drain Theory: Paper titled 'England's Debt to India' read before the East India Association in London in May 1867. First Member of British Parliament: Elected in 1892 from Central Finsbury on a Liberal Party ticket, becoming the first Asian MP in the House of Commons. President of INC (3 times): Presided over Calcutta session (1886), Lahore session (1893), and the historic Calcutta session (1906). Demand for Swaraj (1906): At the 1906 Calcutta session, Naoroji officially proclaimed from the presidential podium that the goal of the Congress was 'Swaraj' or self-government like that of the UK or the colonies.

Explanation: Official Title: Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, 1919; aimed at permanently extending the wartime emergency powers granted under the Defence of India Act 1915. Protest Resignations: All non-official Indian members opposed the bill; Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Madan Mohan Malaviya, and Mazhar-ul-Haq resigned from the Imperial Legislative Council in protest. Satyagraha Sabha: Founded in Bombay in February 1919 by Mahatma Gandhi, calling for a nationwide *hartal* on April 6, 1919 (marking Gandhi's first all-India mass political movement). Jallianwala Bagh (April 13, 1919): Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer opened fire on an unarmed peaceful gathering at Amritsar protesting the arrest of Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal under the Rowlatt Act.

Explanation: Cornwallis & Europeanization: Cornwallis distrusted Indian integrity, decreeing that all higher posts carrying a salary of £500 or more were reserved exclusively for Europeans (Charter Act 1793, Section 56). Haileybury College (1806): East India College founded at Haileybury, England to train covenanted civil servants after Court of Directors disapproved Wellesley's Fort William College. Open Competition (Charter Act 1853): Macaulay Committee (1854) introduced competitive entrance examinations, stripping the Directors of their patronage. First Indian ICS Officer: Satyendranath Tagore (elder brother of Rabindranath Tagore) qualified in 1863. Lee Commission (1923): Recommended establishing the Public Service Commission (set up in 1926 under Sir Ross Barker).

Explanation: Montesquieu's Principle: Executive and judicial functions must never be concentrated in the same hands to protect private property rights. Establishment of District Civil Courts: Zila Diwani Adalats established under distinct District Judges, leaving the Collector purely as an executive tax collector. Government Subject to Law: For the first time, Company officials and Collectors could be sued in the civil courts by Indian citizens for official wrongs or unlawful tax seizures. Four Provincial Courts of Appeal: Set up at Calcutta, Dacca, Murshidabad, and Patna to hear appeals from district judges (later abolished by Bentinck).

Explanation: Abolition of Court Fees (1793): Anyone could file a suit in the Diwani Adalats without paying filing fees, causing courts to be swamped with over 100,000 pending suits in Bengal within five years. Reimposition of Court Fees (1795 & 1797): Alarmed at the judicial paralysis, the British hastily reintroduced court fees and stamp duties to discourage litigation. Emergence of Professional Pleaders: Legal profession formalized; licensed *vakils* encouraged clients to enter complex legal wrangling over boundary surveys and rents.

Explanation: Architects: First experimented by Captain Alexander Read in Baramahal district (1792) after the Third Mysore War; institutionalized by Sir Thomas Munro as Governor of Madras (1820). Theoretical Advantage: Removed parasitic zamindars; protected peasant property rights; state acted as the supreme supreme landlord. Harsh Reality: The land revenue demanded was exorbitant (often 50% to 60% of gross produce); survey estimates were rigid and corrupt; rigidity in collection during famines forced ryots into the clutches of moneylenders (Marwaris and Chettiars), leading to the Deccan Riots of 1875. Torture Commission (Madras 1855): Exposed horrific physical torture practiced by colonial revenue officials to extract arrears under the Ryotwari system.

Explanation: Core Legislative Clause: Amending the Criminal Procedure Code of 1872 to allow Indian Session Judges and District Magistrates to exercise jurisdiction over European British subjects. The White Mutiny of 1883: Led by the Anglo-Indian and European Defence Association; organized boycotts of government levees; insulted Viceroy Ripon openly. Amended Act III of 1884: Conceded that European offenders tried by an Indian magistrate could demand trial by a jury composed of at least 50% Europeans. Historical Legacy: Shattered Indian faith in the impartiality of British justice, proving that organized agitation was necessary to win political rights.

Explanation: Dadabhai Naoroji: Identified the 'Drain of Wealth' through Home Charges, unrequited exports, and foreign remittances as the root cause of chronic Indian poverty. Romesh Chunder Dutt (R.C. Dutt): President of Lucknow INC (1899); published *The Economic History of India under Early British Rule* and *In the Victorian Age*; demanded a ceiling of 50% of rental on land revenue. G. Subramania Iyer: Weaponized the press (*The Hindu*) against the British guaranteed railway system, calling it 'private enterprise at public risk'. Other Major Economic Critics: Justice M.G. Ranade, G.V. Joshi, Dinshaw Wacha, and Gopal Krishna Gokhale.

Explanation: Graded Structure: Primary Vernacular Schools in villages -> Middle Anglo-Vernacular Schools in towns -> High Schools & Affiliated Colleges in districts -> Presidency Universities at the apex. Secular State Education: Government institutions were to maintain strict religious neutrality; Bible study was made voluntary in libraries. Female Education: Praised the efforts of J.E.D. Drinkwater Bethune (founder of Bethune School in 1849) and mandated government financial grants for girls' schools. Teacher Training: Emphasized establishing normal schools for training elementary teachers on the English pattern.

Explanation: Forced Commercialization: Driven by colonial cash revenue demand and peasant debt, unlike spontaneous commercialization in capitalist Europe. Major Cash Crops: Raw Cotton (stimulated by the American Civil War 1861–65), Jute (Bengal), Indigo (Bihar & Bengal), Tea (Assam), Opium (for China trade), Sugarcane, and Oilseeds. Role of Railways: Penetrated the rural hinterland, linking remote villages to seaports, sucking out foodgrains and cash crops for export. Disastrous Consequence: Replacement of coarse food grains (jowar, bajra, pulses) with non-food commercial crops directly magnified the mortality of 19th-century famines (1866 Orissa, 1876–78 Great Famine, 1896–1900 famines).

Explanation: Pre-1757 Trade Pattern: The British had to import precious metals (silver and gold bullion) from Britain to purchase Bengal's silk, cotton, saltpetre, and opium. Post-1765 Diwani Revolution: After securing the Diwani of Bengal in 1765, the Company used Bengal's own surplus territorial revenues to purchase these export goods ('Investment'), completely stopping the flow of British silver to India and inaugurating unrequited drain. Saltpetre Geopolitics: Bengal and Bihar produced the finest saltpetre in the world; Britain's global naval and military superiority over France was sustained by Bengal saltpetre for its munitions. The Opium Monopoly: Institutionalized by Warren Hastings in 1773, forcing Bihar peasants to cultivate poppy for auction in Calcutta and smuggling into China.

Explanation: Orientalist Leaders: H.T. Prinsep, H.H. Wilson; argued for preserving traditional Indian classical knowledge to win native trust and avoid social friction. Anglicist Leaders: Charles Trevelyan, J.R. Colvin; supported by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, who petitioned Lord Amherst in 1823 demanding modern sciences and mathematics instead of grammatical subtleties of Sanskrit. Macaulay's Infamous Dictum (1835): 'A single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia.' Bentinck's Resolution (March 7, 1835): Decreed that all future educational funds would be employed exclusively in imparting English education and Western sciences.

Explanation: Calcutta Madarsa (1780): Founded by Warren Hastings; first educational institution set up by the Company; provided training in Muslim jurisprudence. Asiatic Society of Bengal (1784): Founded by Sir William Jones at Calcutta; translated foundational Sanskrit texts (Kalidasa's *Abhijnanasakuntalam*, *Manusmriti*, *Gita Govinda*) into English. Sanskrit College at Benaras (1791): Established by Jonathan Duncan to preserve traditional Hindu jurisprudence and religion. Fort William College (1800): Established by Lord Richard Wellesley to instruct newly arriving young British covenanted civilians in Indian languages, customs, and laws.

Explanation: Aurang: Persian word for a manufacturing depot or commercial factory/warehouse where artisans brought goods for export inspection. Banian / Gomastha: Indian agents employed by the Company and private traders; the Gomastha was an agent sent directly to weaver villages to force contracts under the Dadni system. Mirasidar: Hereditary landholding elite of Southern India possessing preferential shares in village land produce; possessed alienable land rights. Dadni System: Commercial advance system where weavers were forced to accept cash advances and sign bonds to supply cloth exclusively to the Company.

Explanation: Charter Act of 1813: Terminated the commercial monopoly of the East India Company (except tea and China trade), inaugurating 'One-Way Free Trade'. Inversion of Trade: Between 1814 and 1835, British cotton cloth exports to India increased fifty-fold, transforming India from the world's premier textile exporter into a giant importer. William Bentinck's Despatch (1834): 'The misery hardly finds a parallel in the history of commerce. The bones of the cotton-weavers are bleaching the plains of India.' Ruralisation of India: Millions of displaced urban weavers and spinners had no alternative employment and crowded into agriculture, increasing the land pressure.

Explanation: Indigo Revolt (1859–60): Led by Digambar Biswas and Bishnu Biswas in Nadia, Bengal; immortalized in Dinabandhu Mitra's play *Neel Darpan*; successfully wiped out indigo planting in Bengal. Tinkathia System in Champaran: Planters forced Bihar peasants to cultivate indigo on 3/20th of their best agricultural holding under oppressive contract terms. German Synthetic Dye (1897): Commercial production of synthetic indigo eliminated European demand for Indian agricultural indigo. Champaran Satyagraha (1917): Rajkumar Shukla brought Mahatma Gandhi to Champaran; Gandhi's first civil disobedience movement in India, resulting in the abolition of the Tinkathia system.

Explanation: Wellesley's Vision: Believed British civil servants were no longer mere merchant-traders, but 'ministers of state' ruling a vast subcontinent. Closure Dispute: The Court of Directors disapproved of the exorbitant cost and independence of Fort William College, ordering it closed in 1802; it survived only as a language school. East India College at Haileybury (1806): The Court of Directors established its own training college in Hertfordshire, England in 1806, where selected civil servants studied for two years before sailing to India. Literary Contribution: Fort William College played a momentous role in standardizing modern Hindi and Urdu prose through scholars like John Gilchrist, Lallu Lal, and Sadal Mishra.

Explanation: Defective Question Premise: The stem read 'With reference to revenue collection by Cornwallis', but Statement 1 dealt with the Ryotwari Settlement (which was designed by Thomas Munro and Alexander Read in Madras, completely unconnected to Cornwallis). Rigidity of Ryotwari: British collectors extracted revenue relentlessly during famines (as documented by the 1855 Madras Torture Commission), making Statement 1 false. Permanent Settlement Sunset Clause: Regulation XIV of 1793 stipulated that failure to clear arrears resulted in public sale of the land, forcing the auction of nearly 40% of Bengal's zamindaris between 1794 and 1807. Official Action: UPSC designated this question as 'Cancelled' (*X) in the 2024 official key.

Explanation: Two Major Recommendations: 1. Establishment of a central bank, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI Act passed in 1934, commenced April 1935); 2. Fixing the rupee at 1s. 6d. The 1s. 6d. vs 1s. 4d. Battle: Indian business community demanded 1s. 4d. to protect domestic industry and agricultural exporters from cheap foreign dumping. Dissenting Minute by Purshotamdas Thakurdas: The sole Indian member of the Commission, Sir Purshotamdas Thakurdas, issued a powerful minute of dissent, arguing that the 1s. 6d. ratio was an artificial levy of 12.5% on the Indian peasantry for the benefit of British remittances. Nationalist Fury: Sardar Patel, Motilal Nehru, and Congress fought bitter legislative battles in the Central Assembly in 1927 opposing the Currency Bill.